Bio class

     The cross-bridge theory of muscle contraction states how force is produced, and how the filaments actin and myosin are moved relative to each other to produce muscle shortening. In the cross-bridge theory, sidepieces that are fixed in a regular pattern on the myosin filament (cross-bridges) are thought to undergo cyclic attachment and detachment to specific binding sites on the actin filament. During an attachment/detachment cycle, the cross-bridge head is thought to undergo a rotation and so pull the actin filament relative to the myosin.  one cross-bridge cycle is thought to occur with the energy gained from the hydrolysis of one adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

 Introduction       Biomechanics  is the study of the structure, function and motion of the mechanical aspects of biological systems, at any level from whole  organisms  to  organs to   cells ,  using the methods of  mechanics .  Biomechanics is a branch of  biophysics .            Arthritis is an inflammation of the joints. It can affect one joint or multiple joints. There are more than 100 different types of arthritis, with different causes and treatment methods. Role of biomechanics Biomechanic s play an important role in the health of diarthrodial joints. Altered joint loading is associated to obesity, malalignment, trauma, or joint instability is a critical risk factor for joint degeneration, whereas exercise and weight loss have generally been shown to promote beneficial effects for osteoarthritic joints. Under physiologic conditions, joints of the body are subjected to millions of cycles of loading resulting in forces of up to ten times body weight passing through the joint

 Introduction  What are biosensors? It is an analytical device that detects changes in Biological processes and converts them into an electrical signal  which can be then measured or analyze. The biological material is usually in the form of an enzyme, with the help of a process known as electroenzymatic approach, which is a chemical process of converting the enzymes into corresponding electrical signals (usually current) with the help of a transducer.  The combination of biological element and a transducer will convert the biological material into a corresponding electrical signal. Depending on the type of enzyme, the output of the transducer will be either current or voltage. Biosensors are based on the method of the transduction, which is classified into three  category:- Mass based biosensors Optical based biosensors Electrochemical biosensors Mass based biosensors The mass based biosensors, also known as gravimetric biosensors apply the basic principle of a response to a change in